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One persistent belief suggests that in some earlier eras of human existence, women had similar standing to men, or perhaps ruled, resulting in happier and more peaceful societies. Subsequently, male-dominated systems arose, ushering in ages of strife and oppression.

The Roots of the Gender System Discussion

This concept of matriarchy and male-led societies as diametrically opposed—following a decisive switch between them—originated in the 19th century via Marxist theory, entering archaeology despite little proof. From there, it spread into popular awareness.

Anthropologists, however, tended to be less convinced. They documented significant variation in gender relations among human societies, both modern and historical ones, and many theorized that this diversity had been the norm in ancient times too. Confirming this proved difficult, in part because identifying physical sex—not to mention gender—frequently proved tricky in ancient remains. Then about 20 years ago, everything changed.

The Breakthrough in Ancient DNA

The much-touted ancient DNA revolution—the capacity to extract DNA from ancient bones and study it—meant that abruptly it became possible to identify the sex of ancient individuals and to trace their family connections. The chemical makeup of their bones and teeth—particularly, the proportion of isotopes present there—indicated whether they had resided in various places and undergone dietary changes. The evidence emerging thanks to these advanced methods shows that diversity in gender relations was absolutely the norm in prehistory, and that there was not a clear turning point when a particular model gave way to its mirror image.

Theories on the Emergence of Patriarchal Systems

One influential theory, in fact credited to Marx’s collaborator, proposed that early societies were equal before farming expanded from the Near East approximately 10,000 years ago. Accompanying the settled way of life and building up of resources that agriculture introduced arose the necessity to protect that wealth and to set rules for its inheritance. As populations expanded, men monopolised the leading groups that formed to coordinate these matters, partly because they were better at warfare, and wealth gravitated to the paternal lineage. Male kin were additionally inclined to stay put, with their wives relocating to join them. Women’s subordination was often a byproduct of these changes.

Another view, put forward by archaeologist a Lithuanian scholar in the mid-20th century, held that female-oriented societies dominated for longer in Europe—up to 5,000 years ago—after which they were toppled by arriving, male-ruled migrants from the steppe.

Evidence of Matrilineal Societies

Matrilinearity (where property passes down the mother’s side) and female-resident patterns (where female kin stay together) often go together, and each are associated with greater women’s standing and influence. In 2017, American geneticists reported that for over three centuries during the 900s AD, an elite matrilineal group inhabited Chaco Canyon, in modern-day New Mexico. Then, this June, Asian experts reported a female-line farming community that thrived for a comparable duration in eastern China, more than 3,000 years earlier. These findings add to others, implying that matrilineal societies have been present on all inhabited landmasses, at least from the advent of farming on.

Influence and Autonomy in Prehistoric Societies

But, though they enjoy greater status, women in mother-line societies may not make decisions. That generally stays the preserve of men—just of women’s brothers instead of their husbands. And since ancient DNA and isotopes can’t tell you much about female agency, sex-based hierarchies in prehistory remain a matter of discussion. In fact, such research has forced researchers to ask themselves what they mean by power. Suppose the wife of a king shaped his entourage via patronage and back channels, and his decisions through counselling, did she hold less influence than him?

Archaeologists have identified multiple instances of couples ruling jointly in the bronze age—the period after those migrants arrived in Europe—and later historical records attest to elite women shaping policies in such ways, continents apart. Perhaps they did so in the distant past. Women wielding soft power in male-dominated societies could have existed before Homo sapiens. In his 2022 book about gender roles, a titled work, primatologist Frans de Waal recounted how an alpha female chimp, a named individual, chose a successor to the alpha male—her superior—with a kiss.

Factors Shaping Sex Roles

In recent years another aspect has emerged. Although Engels was likely generally correct in associating wealth with patrilinearity, other factors affected sex roles, too—such as how a community makes a living. Recently, international scientists reported that historically matrilineal villages in Tibet have become more gender-neutral over the last 70 years, as they transitioned from an agricultural economy to a trade-focused one. Conflict additionally has a role. While matrilocal and patrilocal societies are equally warlike, says researcher Carol Ember, within-group disputes—rather than war against an external enemy—pushes societies towards patrilocality, because fighting groups prefer to keep their sons nearby.

Women as Hunters and Authorities

At the same time, evidence is accumulating that women engaged in combat, pursued game and acted as spiritual leaders in the ancient world. No role or role has been closed to them in all times and places. And even if women leaders were perhaps uncommon, they haven’t been absent. Recent ancient DNA findings from Trinity College Dublin show that there were no fewer than pockets of female-line descent throughout Britain, when ancient groups dominated the land in the metal period. Alongside archaeological evidence for women fighters and ancient descriptions of women leaders, it appears as if Celtic women could exercise hard as well as soft power.

Contemporary Matrilineal Societies

Mother-line societies persist nowadays—the Mosuo of China are one case, as are the a Native American tribe of Arizona, heirs of those ancient lineages. Their numbers are declining, as national governments flex their patriarchal influence, but they act as testaments that some vanished societies leaned more towards sex parity than numerous of our present-day ones, and that every culture have the potential to evolve.